Ozone water purification

    MICROSCOPE

     A microscope is a device that magnifies a small item to expose features that are too small for the unassisted eye to see. The optical microscope, which utilizes lenses to concentrate visible light, is the most common type of microscope. The purpose of a microscope is to resolve, or differentiate, minute details that are invisible to the human eye. This is not possible without enough visibility, or contrast, which characterizes the strength of the contrast between the image's features and backdrop.

 

HISTORY OF MICROSCOP:

In the thirteenth century, grinding glass for eyeglasses and magnifying glasses was a widespread practice.A number of Dutch lens manufacturers created products that could be magnified in the late 16th century, but Galileo Galilei invented the first microscope in 1609.

Zaccharias Janssen and Hans Lipperhey, two Dutch spectacle manufacturers, are credited with being the first people to conceptualize the compound microscope.

Small items were found to be expanded by inserting various kinds and sizes of lenses into the opposite ends of tubes.

Later in the 16th century, Anton van Leeuwenhoek began polishing and grinding lenses when he discovered that some curved lenses expanded an image.

He invented glass lenses that could magnify objects many times. For the first time in history, he was able to see minute details of everyday items, microorganisms, and a wide variety of microscopic creatures because to the superior quality of his lenses.

 Microscopes

 

TYPES OF MICROSCOPE:

1. Light Microscope.

ü Simple Microscope.

ü Compound Microscope.

2. Stereoscopic Microscope.

3. Confocal Microscope.

4. Electron Microscope.

5. Scanning Electron Microscope(SEM).

6. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM).

7. Reflection Electron Microscope (REM).

8. X-Ray Microscope.

9. Scanning Probes.

10. Scanning Acoustic.

 

1. LIGHT MICROSCOPE:

          Light microscope uses the properties of light to produce an enlarged image. It is the simplest type of microscope. Based on the simplicity of the microscope. Light Microscope divided two types.

               They are:

i. Simple Microscope.

ii. Compound Microscope.

A. Bright field microscope

B. Dark filed microscope

C. Phase contrast microscope

D. Fluorescence microscope

 

i. Simple Microscope:

The most prevalent kind of microscopes you'll probably encounter, these instruments use light and lenses to illuminate a specimen in order to get the best possible image. They can be used for clinical blood and tissue examination, dissections, seeing live cells, and insects.

It solely makes use of one lens, such as a hand lens. The majority of these lenses are planoconvex or double convex. Professionals like Hans Janssen and Anton van Leeuwenhoek were able to create basic microscopes because to the advancement of sophisticated methods for grinding and shaping lenses, which had a substantial impact on the study of biology.

                                

 

ii. Compound Microscope:

Two lenses or lens systems are utilized in compound microscopes. An expanded picture of the item was generated by one lens system, and its image was further magnified by a second lens system. The objective and the ocular, or eye piece, are the two lens systems that make up a contemporary compound microscope. An almost inverted picture is produced by magnifying the original image with the objective lens once more using the eye piece. The product of the magnifications of two lens systems yields the total magnification. They are easy to use, portable, inexpensive, and fit on a desktop. Their light source is at the bottom, and in order for the light to reach the microscope's lenses and properly illuminate the specimen, it must first pass through the specimen.They are most often used to view objects at a cellular level and can reach magnifications up to 1000x.

                   

A.BRIGHT FIELD MICROSCOPE:

High resolution pictures of many species interacting or bigger subcellular features, such cell borders and nuclei, may be produced using bright field microscopy. Imaging of the extracellular matrix's constituent parts or subcellular imaging are more suitable uses for reflection contrast microscopy.

Among the most basic types of optical microscopy is bright-field microscopy. When using bright-field microscopy, illuminating light passes through the sample and is absorbed by dense regions of the material, producing contrast. limited contrast for materials that absorb light poorly and limited resolution because of hazy appearance of out-of-focus material are two drawbacks of bright-field microscopy.

B.DARK FIELD MICROSCOPE:

The method known as "dark field microscopy" makes use of oblique illumination to improve contrast in specimens that are difficult to view under standard lighting conditions.Light entering the specimen at oblique angles is diffracted, refracted, and reflected into the microscope objective to create a brilliant picture of the specimen overlaid on a black backdrop when the direct light is stopped by an opaque stop in the condenser.

                   

C.PHACE CONTRAST MICROSCOPE:

 Phase contrast is a microscopy optical contrast method that highlights unstained features in biological specimens' cells. Phase contrast allows for the detailed observation of translucent cell structures in intense field light with great contrast.Light that interacts with structures within a cell may undergo a phase shift due to variations in their optical densities. Phase contrast is based on this phenomena. Consequently, structures with higher optical densities will seem darker than those with lower optical densities.

                             

D.FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPE:

Specimens that absorb light and then reradiate it, whether organic or inorganic, often do so due to well-established physical processes called fluorescence or phosphorescence. Owing to a little delay, often less than a microsecond, between the absorption and emission of photons, light resulting from the fluorescence process emits nearly concurrently with the absorption of excitation light. The phenomenon known as phosphorescence is what happens when emission persists after the excitation light has been extinguished.

2. STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE:

An optical microscope that shows a specimen in three dimensions is called a stereo microscope. Other names for it include stereo zoom microscope and dissecting microscope. Parts of a dissecting microscope consist of distinct objective lenses and eyepieces. You have two distinct visual pathways for each eye as a result. A three-dimensional image is created by the left and right eyes' slightly differing angles. It is also known as the dissecting microscope as it provides a three-dimensional image.

With a maximum magnification of around 50x, they have less magnification than compound microscopes, making it simpler to view opaque, bigger objects up close. Layered imaging, which produces a 3-dimensional image in the eyepiece and is an improvement over flat imaging in a compound scope, is produced by two light channels inside the microscope tube. These are frequently employed in entomology, gem and mineral research, coin assessment, and dissection. They can also be used to repair complex microchips or watches.

3. CONFOCAL MICROSCOPE:

Confocal fluorescence microscopy is a method that may be applied to decrease background fluorescence from a thin culture or get high-resolution optical slices inside a thick sample. Thorlabs produces parts for bespoke fluorescence imaging systems in addition to entire upright and inverted confocal fluorescence systems.

Confocal microscopes scan a specimen with lasers to produce high-magnification, high-resolution pictures. They are able to provide sectional detail (without actual dissection) that may be utilized to construct a three-dimensional (3D) picture because they enable depth selection by scanning the specimen. In the biomedical sciences, confocal microscopes are most frequently employed to observe fluorescently tagged live cells or embryos. Usually, they have a 2000x maximum magnification capacity.

4. ELECTRONE MICROSCOPE:

A method for producing high resolution photographs of both biological and non-biological materials is electron microscopy (EM). It is employed in biomedical research to examine the intricate composition of organelles, tissues, cells, and macromolecular complexes. The fact that electrons, which have extremely short wavelengths, are used as the source of illuminating radiation leads to the great resolution of EM pictures.To address particular issues, electron microscopy is employed in combination with a range of auxiliary methods (such as thin sectioning, immuno-labeling, and negative staining).Important details on the anatomical underpinnings of cell activity and illness are revealed by EM imaging.

Light is not necessary for an electron microscope to produce a picture. Rather, to create a digital image, this kind of microscope accelerates electrons and transmits them through or across an object.These microscopes are used to view intricate structure at the cellular and macromolecular levels since they offer the most power and resolution currently on the market. Electron beams kill samples, even though this can appear like the solution to every microscopy problem. Therefore, you are unable to examine live specimens with them.

5. SCANNING ELECTRONE MICROSCOPE (SEM):

A concentrated stream of high-energy electrons is utilized by the scanning electron microscope (SEM) to produce a range of signals at the surface of solid objects. Information about the sample, including as its exterior appearance (texture), chemical composition, and the orientation and crystalline structure of the components that make up the sample, may be found in the signals that result from electron-sample interactions. The majority of applications involve gathering data over a predetermined portion of the sample's surface and creating a 2-dimensional picture to show the spatial differences in these characteristics. Conventional SEM methods may be used to examine areas with widths ranging from about 1 cm to 5 microns in a scanning mode (magnification ranging from 20X to about 30,000X, spatial resolution of 50 to 100 nm). Additionally, the SEM can analyze specific point locations on the sample; this method is particularly helpful for detecting crystalline structure, crystal orientations, and chemical compositions in a qualitative or semi-quantitative manner (using EDS and EBSD, respectively). There is a great deal of capability overlap between the two instruments, and the SEM and EPMA have very similar designs and functions.

                 

6. TRANSIMISSION ELECTRONE MICROSCOPE (TEM):

Three key systems are included in the transmission electron microscope (TEM), a form of electron microscope. the image-producing system, which consists of the objective lens, movable specimen stage, intermediate and projector lenses, which focus the electrons passing through the specimen to form a real, highly magnified image, and the image-recording system, which transforms the electron image into a form perceptible to the human eye. an electron gun, which produces the electron beam, and the condenser system, which focuses the beam onto the object. A digital camera for long-term records and a fluorescent screen for seeing and focussing the picture often make up an image-recording system. Furthermore, power supply and a vacuum system made up of pumps along with the gauges and valves that go with them are needed.

A TEM collects data by passing electrons through a thin specimen, similar to how light passes through a compound microscope specimen, as opposed to the scanning structure of a SEM microscope. To create a picture, the electrons from the TEM go back and forth across the vacuum chamber of the microscope instead of reflecting off the surface of the object. A TEM is more powerful than a SEM microscope and can achieve high magnification powers of up to 500,000x, or 1-nanometer resolution.

 

7. REFLACTION ELECTRONE MICROSCOPE (REM):

The REM method combines spectroscopy, diffraction, and imaging methods to characterize the topography, crystal structure, and surface chemistry of individual crystals.1 Reflected electrons from high-energy electrons incident at glancing angles to the surface are employed to create a reflection high-energy loss spectrum (REELS)2, a reflection high-energy electron diffraction pattern (RHEED), and a REM picture. These methods work on metal, semiconductor, ceramic, and glass surfaces. Research has been conducted using scanning transmission (STEM), conventional transmission (TEM), and ultra-high vacuum (UHV) electron microscopes.

The microscopic surface structure and composition of crystals are studied with these microscopes. From the first few atomic layers of the crystal, a narrow beam of electrons is refracted at high precision (up to around 1 nanometer). To create a picture, it is paired with spectroscopy, which is the study of light dispersal.

8. X-RAY MICROSCOPE:

   An X-ray microscope creates enlarged pictures of things by using electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray spectrum. Most things may be seen with X-ray microscopy without the requirement for extra preparation since X-rays can penetrate them.X-rays are invisible to the human eye and do not readily reflect or refract, in contrast to visible light. In order to identify X-rays that penetrate the object, an X-ray microscope either exposes film or employs a charge-coupled device (CCD) detector. It is a contrast imaging technique that makes use of the differences in soft X-ray absorption by the oxygen atom (an ingredient of water) and the carbon atom (the primary component of a live cell) in the water window area (wavelengths: 2.34–4.4 nm, energies: 280–530 eV).

An X-ray microscope creates enlarged pictures of things by using electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray spectrum. Most things may be seen with X-ray microscopy without the requirement for extra preparation since X-rays can penetrate them.X-rays are invisible to the human eye and do not readily reflect or refract, in contrast to visible light. In order to identify X-rays that penetrate the object, an X-ray microscope either exposes film or employs a charge-coupled device (CCD) detector. It is a contrast imaging technique that makes use of the differences in soft X-ray absorption by the oxygen atom (an ingredient of water) and the carbon atom (the primary component of a live cell) in the water window area (wavelengths: 2.34–4.4 nm, energies: 280–530 eV).

9. SCANNING PROBES MICRSCOPE (SPM):

SPM refers to a collection of methods that employ extremely sharp tips to scan very close to, or in touch with, the substance being studied (several nm). The output, which characterizes the SPM technique being applied, is produced by monitoring and controlling the contact between the tip and the sample surface. Numerous interactions are measurable, including as capacitance, force, and current. Because of this, SPM is adaptable and able to provide details on various material qualities.                 

At a resolution of less than 1 nm, SPMs are able to produce pictures at the nanoscale. The specimen surface is scanned by a probe tip that is roughly the width of a single atom. It uses a laser to monitor any deflections in the specimen and then transmits the data to photodiodes, which convert the data into a digital picture. With the use of these microscopes, one may examine objects at the nanoscale and peer inside molecules and cells.

10. SCANNING ACOUSTIC MCROSCOPE (SAM):

The intrinsic contrast mechanism in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) results from the high-frequency acoustic waves' elastic contact with the target material. The foundation of SAM involves producing and directing high-frequency acoustic waves, also known as longitudinal or compressional waves, towards a target, and then detecting the echo signals. Mapping local mechanical (elastic) characteristics of the specimen with a spatial resolution of up to 1 μm is possible because to the amplitude and timing of the echo pulses.

These kinds of microscopes are used to photograph specimens' interior structures without endangering them. With a resolution of up to 100 nanometers, they are frequently employed for the examination of optical or electrical equipment. After being immersed in liquid and exposed to sound waves, the specimens reverberate back to a transducer, which pixelates the data .